Seni Kisah Amerika Asli dari Cerita Squash Blossom tentang Kalung Blossom Squash dengan Pendant Naja Selama ribuan tahun, simbol telah memberi tahu cerita dan juga berfungsi sebagai metode untuk mendapatkan kekuatan atas kekuatan dan fenomena yang mempengaruhi masyarakat atau masyarakat. orang. Liontin sabit terbalik pada kalung mawar squash, yang disebut 39Naja39 oleh Navajo, ditemukan dalam berbagai bentuk desain di seluruh budaya dunia. Sebagai bulan sabit, bentuk ini kembali ke masa Paleolitik. Disebutkan dalam kitab Hakim sebagai hiasan yang dikenakan di sekitar leher unta. Dalam budaya Fenisia, Astarte adalah dewi kesuburan dan dia diwakili oleh bulan sabit terbalik juga. Sebagai liontin, bulan sabit terbalik juga ditemukan di Romawi kuno, dan artefak Kreta. Selama Abad Pertengahan, orang-orang Moor berkuda keluar dari Timur dan menaklukkan daratan di arah barat termasuk delapan abad pendudukan di Spanyol. Mereka mengadopsi simbol itu sebagai ornamen kekang, dan mengira bulan sabit terbalik akan melindungi diri dan kuda mereka dari mata kejahatan39. Ketika orang-orang Spanyol datang ke Amerika Selatan dan Tengah, mereka membawa gagasan yang sama kepada mereka untuk melindungi kuda dan tentara mereka. Dengan demikian, Orang-orang Moor mengajarkan orang Spanyol, yang mengajar orang-orang Meksiko, yang mengajarkan sistem kepercayaan dan metalurgi Navajo mereka. Datang dari arah lain di Amerika Utara, simbol sabit terbalik ada pada berbagai jenis barang perdagangan yang dibawa dari pantai Timur oleh orang Eropa lainnya. Liontin sabit digunakan sejak awal 1800an pada, oleh suku Shawnee, Delaware, Cheyenne, Comanche dan Navajo, antara lain. Namun, karya logam dari berbagai pengaruh Eropa ditemukan di barat daya pada awal tahun 1700an. Pada saat ini, Navajo adalah prajurit sengit yang lebih sering digerebek tapi kadang-kadang diperdagangkan dengan tetangga mereka, Suku Dataran. Pada tahun 182039, pekerja logam Southern Plains telah mempelajari proses pemotongan, pemukulan dan pemukulan dingin. Sebagian besar karya ini diproduksi dengan perak Jerman. Perak Jerman adalah paduan yang berbeda dibandingkan dengan perak Meksiko, yang sering digunakan oleh Navajo. Melalui kontak dengan suku Spanyol dan beberapa suku dataran, Navajo mengadopsi simbol bulan sabit terbalik untuk kuda mereka. Naja diletakkan di atas kepala kuda, pita tengah depan tali kekang kuda, dan kemudian, Naja bergerak ke bidang kalung. Dalam sebuah wawancara tahun 1930an, satu per satu, setiap Navajo yang mampu membeli sebuah kepala perak ada di atas kudanya, menurut Gray Kumis, (seorang perajin perak Navajo yang bekerja seni dari akhir 1800an sampai tahun 1900an). Pada awal 1900 foto penari Hopi, Naja dapat dilihat sebagai komponen utama kalung manik-manik. Kemampuan untuk bekerja di perak, kulit dan logam lainnya, membiarkan Navajo memindahkan budaya mereka dari masyarakat pejuang ke lebih banyak masyarakat pedagang. Dimana prestise dan kekayaan berasal dari perampokan, sekarang datang dari penggembalaan, dan berbagai bentuk seni. Perak adalah bagian yang sangat penting dari perubahan ini. Menurut Navajo, simbol Naja bersifat dekoratif, dan tidak memiliki tujuan baik sebagai simbol spiritual atau simbol tertentu. Namun, Naja sangat dihargai oleh Navajo dan juga orang-orang lain. Salah satu simbol bunga squash dapat ditemukan di petroglif kuno di Monumen Nasional Saguaro di Arizona. Dipercaya bahwa simbol bunga yang biasa kita lihat di kalung dibawa ke Navajo pada pergantian abad, tahun 1800an sampai tahun 1900an. Bunga itu diwakili dengan kelopak panjang mulai terbuka dan sebuah bola menempel di dasar bunga. Bunga yang tertunda adalah representasi dari delima Spanyol-Meksiko dan variasi desain ini dapat ditemukan pada motif Granada, Spanyol. Di Amerika, pria kolonial Spanyol mengenakan variasi bunga bunga delima ini di baju, celana dan celana panjang mereka seperti hiasan perak. Beberapa kalung mekar squash yang berasal dari tahun 18809 dan 189039 dibuat dengan koin perak Meksiko buatan tangan, dengan Naja dalam desain yang sama dengan liontin kuda Moor. Najas dapat ditemukan pada semua jenis kalung, bagaimanapun, tidak semua squash mekar kalung sport Najas. Dan ada kalung dengan bunga dan Najas, serta elemen desain lainnya seperti simbol agama. Seiring berjalannya waktu, kedua bunga squash dan Naja telah berkembang menjadi berbagai desain dan gaya. Saat ini, kalung ini terus berkembang melewati unsur perak dan pirus tradisional dan beralih ke emas, berlian dan bahan menarik lainnya dan kecantikan yang hebat. Di River Trading Post kami menawarkan pilihan kalung mekar squash yang bagus. Jelajahi Koleksi Perhiasan kami. Isu Khusus: Konflik, negosiasi, dan mediasi lintas budaya: sorotan dari konferensi dua tahunan Akademi Internasional untuk Akulturasi Antarbudaya Internasional: Hidup dengan sukses dalam dua budaya John W. Berry. Departemen Psikologi, Universitas Queens, Kingston, Ontario, Kanada K7L 3N6 Diterima 10 Juli 2005. Tersedia secara online 6 Oktober 2005. Tema konferensi ini memusatkan perhatian pada konflik dan negosiasi. Dalam tulisan ini, saya mengambil satu contoh dari masalah ini, dan memeriksa aspek budaya dan psikologis dari fenomena ini yang terjadi selama proses akulturasi. Selama akulturasi, kelompok orang dan anggotanya masing-masing terlibat dalam kontak antar budaya, menghasilkan potensi konflik, dan kebutuhan untuk negosiasi guna mencapai hasil yang adaptif bagi kedua belah pihak. Penelitian akulturasi, termasuk strategi akulturasi, perubahan perilaku, dan stres akulturatif ditinjau. Ada perbedaan kelompok dan individu yang besar dalam bagaimana orang (dalam kedua kelompok yang berhubungan) melakukan akulturasi mereka (dijelaskan dalam kaitannya dengan strategi integrasi, asimilasi, pemisahan dan marginalisasi), seberapa besar stres yang mereka alami, dan seberapa baik mereka beradaptasi secara psikologis. Dan sosial budaya. Umumnya, mereka yang mengejar strategi integrasi mengalami lebih sedikit tekanan, dan mencapai adaptasi yang lebih baik daripada yang mengejar marjinalisasi hasil bagi mereka yang mengejar asimilasi dan pemisahan mengalami tingkat stres dan adaptasi menengah. Implikasi kebijakan publik dan orientasi personal terhadap akulturasi diajukan. Sehubungan dengan tema konferensi, karena integrasi memerlukan negosiasi yang substansial, namun menghasilkan konflik yang paling sedikit, konsep dan temuan yang diulas di sini dapat memberikan beberapa panduan untuk kemajuan hubungan antarbudaya. Akulturasi Hubungan antar kelompok Imigran Tel. 1 613 542 8095 fax: 1 613 533 2499. Hak cipta 2005 Elsevier Ltd. Semua hak dilindungi undang-undang. Mengutip artikel () Miri Country Music Festival 2017 25 Februari 2017 Parkcity Everly Hotel, Miri 11 Maret 12 12, 2017, 10:00:00:00 Balai Pertunjukan Vivacity, Level 2 C Atrium Program Pendakian Bukit Sadok Betong (Buku Rekaman Malaysia) April 29 -30 Ulu Layar, Betong (Doni 013-8088044 Sunarthi 016-5784479) Festival Jazz Borneo 2017 12 Mei 13, 2017 Parkcity Everly Hotel, Festival Musik Dunia Rainforest Miri 2017 14 Juli 8211 16, 2017 Desa Budaya Sarawak, Kuching Borneo Cultural Festival 2017 20-29 Juli, Sibu Town Square, Sibu Heart of Borneo Highlands Tantangan Eco II 20 Juli 8211 29 Festival Tari Internasional Bario, Miri Sibu 2017 28 Agustus 8211 2 September 19:30 Konferensi Internasional Beads Sibu Borneo 2017 13-15 Oktober Waterfront Hotel, Kuching Borneo Talent Awards 2017 24 November 8211 25 Sibu Town Square Ruhiang Kiulu Petualangan Challenge 15 Jan 2017 Tamparuli Tamu Ground, Tamparuli Town 17th Day Day Celebration 2 Feb 2017 Padang M Erdeka, Festival Tahun Baru Imlek Kota Kinabalu, Pitas 2017 11 8211 12 Feb 2017 Dataran Salimpodon Laut, Regatta Hari Terbuka Kota Pitas 25 8211 26 Feb 2017 Kinabalu Yacht Club, Festival Makanan dan Makanan Tanjung Aru Tambunan 29 Mar 2017 Lapangan Pisompuruan, Festival Kalimaran Tambunan 1 8211 30 Apr 2017 Pusat Kebudayaan Murut, Tenda Makanan Jepang Tenom 7 8211 16 Apr 2017 Pusat Atrium, GF, 1Borneo Hypermall Festival Rungus Kiansamung 20 8211 22 Apr 2017 Kg. 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Memang benar bahwa Muslim memiliki kepercayaan dasar yang mendasar, seperti yang diungkapkan dalam shahadah. Profesi iman: hanya ada satu Tuhan dan bahwa Muhammad adalah Nabi-Nya yang telah diwahyukan Quran. Namun, saat agama tersebut berevolusi setelah kematian Muhammad dan menyebar ke seluruh Arab ke berbagai wilayah dan budaya, mulai dari Bosnia dan China sampai Yaman dan Zanzibar, hal itu kemudian ditafsirkan dengan beragam cara. Keragaman ini adalah hasil dari inti keyakinan agama yang berinteraksi secara kompleks dengan berbagai konteks di mana umat Islam tinggal. Masing-masing konteks ini didefinisikan oleh banyak faktor, termasuk sejarah, tradisi budaya, struktur sosial, ekonomi, politik, dan geografi dan lokasi fisik di dunia. Mengakui kenyataan ini, Abdol Karim Soroush, seorang intelektual Iran kontemporer, menyatakan, Tidak ada yang namanya Islam murni atau Islam historis yang berada di luar proses perkembangan sejarah. Pengalaman aktual tentang Islam selalu secara kultural dan historis spesifik, dan terikat oleh keadaan langsung lokasinya di tempat dan waktu. Jika kita mengambil gambaran tentang Islam seperti yang hidup hari ini, maka akan mengungkapkan keragaman pengalaman hidup yang semuanya berbeda, namun ada bersamaan. (Seperti dikutip dalam Farish Noor, New Voices of Islam. 2002, 15-16). Menjaga kenyataan historis ini, jelaslah bahwa kisah tentang Islam melibatkan orang-orang dari berbagai ras, etnis dan budaya yang berbeda, banyak literatur dan bahasa, dengan banyak sejarah, dan berbagai interpretasi yang beberapa di antaranya mungkin bertentangan satu sama lain. Tidak mengherankan, mengingat keragaman ini, almarhum Edward Said, Profesor Universitas Bahasa Inggris di Universitas Columbia dan kritikus budaya dan sastra, menulis, Masalah yang dihadapi siapapun yang mencoba mengatakan sesuatu yang dapat dipahami, berguna, atau akurat tentang Islam adalah legiun. Oleh karena itu, seseorang harus mulai dengan berbicara tentang Islam daripada Islam (seperti yang diceritakan oleh ulama Aziz al-Azmeh dalam buku bagusnya Islam dan Modernitasnya), kemudian kemudian menentukan jenis mana, di mana waktu tertentu, yang sedang dibicarakan. Dia melanjutkan dengan mengatakan bahwa mengingat kompleksitas dan keragaman pengalaman manusia yang konkret, jauh lebih masuk akal untuk mencoba membicarakan berbagai jenis Islam, pada saat yang berbeda, untuk orang yang berbeda, di berbagai bidang. Langkah kecil melampaui keyakinan inti (karena bahkan sangat sulit untuk dikurangi menjadi seperangkat aturan doktrinal sederhana) dan sentralitas Alquran, seseorang telah memasuki dunia yang sangat menakjubkan yang mungkin bahkan mengatakan sejarah kolektif yang tak terpikirkan sebelumnya. Dituliskan (Sejarah Impossible: Mengapa banyak Islam tidak dapat disederhanakan, Majalah Harpers. Juli 2002, 69-74). Kursus Studi Budaya Islam adalah sebuah undangan untuk mengeksplorasi sepotong kecil keragaman yang kaya dan mempesona yang menjadi ciri dunia Islam dengan memeriksa interaksi dinamis antara keyakinan dan praktik keagamaan dan konteks politik, ekonomi, sosial, sastra, dan artistik mereka sepanjang waktu. Dan ruang. Selain terpapar materi konten baru, kursus ini juga dimaksudkan untuk membekali Anda dengan alat untuk menganalisa dan berpikir kritis tentang apa artinya mempelajari tidak hanya Islam, tapi juga tradisi religius lainnya dalam konteks budayanya. Dalam arti yang lebih luas, kursus ini adalah tentang bagaimana belajar agama dalam konteks akademis. Premis dasar pengetahuan kursus dibangun secara kultural adalah sesuai dengan studi tentang tradisi Kristen, Yahudi, Budha atau Hindu seperti halnya studi tentang Islam. Untuk memahami dengan benar peran agama dalam masyarakat manusia, tentu saja, kita harus melampaui ringkasan keyakinan dan praktik deskriptif dan memandangnya sebagai tradisi hidup dan dinamis yang terus berubah sesuai konteks dan keadaan para penganutnya. Pada akhirnya, kursus ini akan membantu memberi Anda literasi yang lebih baik tentang studi agama pada umumnya dan kesadaran yang lebih baik akan kompleksitas yang terlibat dalam penelitian semacam itu. Tidak diragukan lagi orang percaya akan banyak kepercayaan yang merasa nyaman dengan memahami agama mereka dari perspektif kebaktian, akan mengalami kesulitan untuk menyesuaikan diri dengan pendekatan ilmiah dan analitis yang telah kita diskusikan di atas. Beberapa Muslim, misalnya, mungkin bersikeras bahwa hanya ada satu Islam dan perbedaan, jika ada, bersifat dangkal. Tapi konsepsi ini sendiri dipengaruhi oleh konteks budaya tertentu. Orang-orang Muslim semacam itu tidak sendirian dalam konsepsi ini karena ada orang-orang non-Muslim yang juga menganggap Islam sebagai satu monolit bersatu dan homogen. Baru-baru ini, terutama setelah tahun 911, sejumlah sejarawan, ilmuwan politik, jurnalis, intelektual publik juga menganggap Islam sebagai satu blok mega-peradaban, yang membentang di seluruh dunia, yang bertentangan dengan apa yang disebut Barat yang juga mereka anggap sebagai Sebuah peradaban mandiri dan terpadu. Pembacaannya dipilih untuk Sesi Satu dari buku Carl Ernsts, Mengikuti Muhammad. Mulailah dengan pemeriksaan kritis tentang cara di mana konsepsi Islam, dan dalam hal ini pengertian agama, dibangun secara kultural dan politis oleh orang-orang Muslim dan non-Muslim. Pembacaan dari Muhammad berikut juga memeriksa Sumber-sumber tradisi Islam, memberikan gambaran singkat tentang peran penting bahwa Muhammad sebagai Nabi Islam dan Al-Quran, sebagai kitab suci Islam, bermain dalam mendefinisikan kesadaran agama, sosial dan politik Muslim. Kami akan mengeksplorasi masing-masing sumber ini secara lebih rinci dalam Sesi Dua, Tiga dan Empat. Kumpulan pembacaan kedua, dari Atlas Sejarah Islam. Setelah ringkasan singkat tentang keyakinan dan praktik dasar, telusuri perluasan historis peraturan kekaisaran Arab Arab di luar semenanjung Arab, yang mencakup periode antara tahun 600 sampai 1100 Masehi. Peta menggambarkan bagaimana iman Islam dimulai di dunia Arab namun menyebar ke wilayah lain di mana budaya, geografi, bahasa, dan etnis lokal dipengaruhi oleh kepercayaan dan praktik. Pembentukan peraturan Arab di Timur Tengah menyebabkan perkembangan rute perdagangan yang dikendalikan oleh pedagang Muslim, membawa banyak kekayaan ke kerajaan yang berkembang pesat. Dengan ekspansi politik dan ekonomi, bahasa Arab berkembang menjadi bahasa administrasi, budaya, pembelajaran dan perdagangan internasional. Ketika kekuatan Arab meluas di lebih banyak wilayah di Timur Tengah dan wilayah Mediterania, tradisi non Arab, khususnya Persia dan Romawi-Romawi, terintegrasi. Hasilnya adalah peradaban kosmopolitan di mana budaya Arab memainkan peran penting namun di dalamnya juga berpartisipasi dalam berbagai kelompok etnis dan agama. Survei historis diakhiri dengan diskusi singkat tentang Perang Salib dan usaha para ksatria dari kerajaan Kristen di Barat Latin (termasuk Inggris, Skandinavia, Jerman, Italia dan Prancis) untuk merebut kendali politik Tanah Suci dari para penguasa Muslim, yang merusak Hubungan positif yang sebelumnya ada antara Muslim dan Kristen Ortodoks Timur di Timur Tengah. Pertanyaan Panduan Atas Saat Anda merenungkan pembacaan Muhammad dan Atlas Sejarah Islam, pertimbangkan pertanyaan berikut: Pertimbangkan pernyataan Carl Ernsts, Adalah aman untuk mengatakan bahwa tidak ada agama yang memiliki citra negatif seperti mata-mata Islam. (Hal 11) Mengapa demikian Bagaimana hubungan politik dan ekonomi antara Timur Tengah dan Eropa Barat dan Amerika Serikat mempengaruhi persepsi tentang Islam, di masa lalu dan sekarang Bagaimana mereka mempengaruhi persepsi Barat di kalangan Muslim Carl Ernst menulis , Agama tidak pernah ada dalam ruang hampa. Hal ini selalu terjalin dengan beberapa helai budaya dan sejarah yang menghubungkannya dengan lokasi tertentu. Retorika agama harus dimasukkan ke dalam konteks, sehingga kita tahu tujuan dan lawan juru bicara tertentu. (Halaman 30). Diskusikan pernyataan ini dengan menggunakan contoh-contoh dari sejarah Amerika. Bagaimana konsepsi tentang istilah agama berubah dari waktu ke waktu Bagaimana mereka memengaruhi persepsi tentang Islam dan studinya Apa asal mula kepercayaan Islam Mengapa Muslim dan non-Muslim menjawab pertanyaan ini secara berbeda Dengan cara apa yang sesuai dan atau tidak pantas untuk membedakan antara Peradaban Islam dan peradaban Barat atas Islam, seperti agama Kristen, Yudaisme dan agama dunia lainnya, berbeda dalam interpretasinya, ritual dan praktiknya. Memang benar bahwa Muslim memiliki kepercayaan dasar yang mendasar, seperti yang diungkapkan dalam shahadah. Profesi iman: ada hellip Komentar Off pada Seminar Satu: Sumber dari tradisi atas Muhammad, Nabi Islam, berada di antara tokoh paling berpengaruh dalam sejarah manusia. Bagi jutaan umat Islam di seluruh dunia, Nabi Muhammad SAW telah menjadi paradigma, atau teladan, yang patut ditiru. Sebagai tuhan memilih nabi dan utusan, dia paling baik mewujudkan bagaimana menjalani kehidupan sesuai dengan kehendak Tuhan. Dalam hal ini, dia dan para nabi sebelum dia, termasuk Abraham, Musa, Yusuf, Yakub dan Yesus, dianggap sebagai orang yang patut dicontoh, secara harfiah, mereka yang telah benar-benar tunduk kepada kehendak Allah. Tidak mengherankan, perilaku adat Nabi Muhammad SAW adalah sumber yang penting, kedua setelah Alquran, untuk menentukan norma hukum, sosial dan pietistik bagi masyarakat Muslim. Hadis. Atau akun yang merekam perkataan dan perbuatan Nabi, merupakan sumber penting sunnah Nabi. Bagi banyak umat Islam, Muhammad bukan hanya pemandu tapi pendoa syafaat, penolong pada saat sulit, mistik, sahabat, dan bahkan yang dicintai. Untuk pemahaman yang lebih baik tentang beberapa peran di mana umat Islam telah melihat Nabi mereka, kita perlu berfokus tidak hanya pada tokoh sejarah Muhammad, yang tinggal di Arab abad ketujuh (Muhammad tentang sejarah), tetapi juga pada Muhammad saat dia Telah ditafsirkan oleh jutaan umat Islam selama berabad-abad yang tinggal di berbagai wilayah geografis dan budaya (Muhammad melalui sejarah). Pembacaan dalam Sesi Dua membantu kita mengeksplorasi interpretasi sosok Muhammad melintasi waktu historis dan ruang geografis dengan menggunakan contoh dari puisi, sastra rakyat dan seni visual. Dengan menggunakan literatur dan seni sebagai lensa budaya untuk melihat sosok Nabi, lebih baik kita bisa menghargai peran yang dimainkan oleh konteks sastra dan artistik dalam mempengaruhi penafsiran dan ekspresi konsep dan simbol keagamaan. Pendekatan semacam itu juga memungkinkan kita mengakses suara pribadi penyair dan seniman seperti yang diungkapkan dalam karya mereka, suara-suara yang sering ditenggelamkan oleh suara-suara pejabat dan teks keagamaan formal dan resmi. Pilihan untuk Seminar ini mengacu pada dua jenis literatur yang menggambarkan Nabi Muhammad SAW: puisi dari Asia Selatan (subkontinen India) dan sub-Sahara Afrika dan cerita rakyat dari Hui, sebuah komunitas Muslim di China, yang menggambarkan bagaimana Sosok Muhammad ditafsirkan dalam kerangka tradisi folkloric Cina. Dari Asia Selatan kita memiliki contoh puisi dari bahasa Urdu dan Sindhi, bahasa Indo-Arya ditulis dalam naskah berdasarkan abjad Arab. Dalam perjalanan perkembangan historis mereka, kedua bahasa tersebut telah memperoleh kosakata yang signifikan yang berasal dari bahasa Arab dan Persia. Disampaikan oleh lebih dari 150 juta orang, bahasa Urdu adalah bahasa resmi Pakistan dan juga salah satu bahasa nasional India. Di luar Asia Selatan, bahasa Urdu secara rutin diucapkan sebagai bahasa pertama atau kedua di komunitas imigran asal Asia Selatan di banyak belahan dunia, termasuk Amerika Serikat. Puisi Urdu mencakup genre khas yang disebut nat. Atau komposisi yang memuliakan Muhammad. Tulisan ini bisa ditulis dalam berbagai bentuk dan bentuk puisi. Pilihan nat, termasuk dalam bacaan, menggambarkan hubungan khusus yang ada antara para komposer puisi dan Muhammad, Nabi tercinta mereka, sebuah hubungan yang dalam beberapa kasus memiliki nada yang agak romantis untuknya. Muhammad digambarkan sebagai pembantu dan seorang teman, dengan penyair yang mencari perantaraannya untuk pengampunan atas dosa-dosa mereka. Permintaan semacam itu mengungkapkan bahwa Muhammad dipahami sebagai memiliki dimensi mistis dan spiritual terhadap kepribadiannya yang dimungkinkan oleh hubungannya yang khusus dengan Tuhan. Menulis puisi, atau puisi yang memuliakan Muhammad, tidak terbatas hanya pada penyair Muslim, sampel kami menunjukkan contoh puisi semacam itu yang ditulis oleh non-Muslim juga. Sindhi diucapkan terutama di wilayah Sind, provinsi selatan Pakistan saat ini, rumah peradaban lembah Indus kuno. Bahasa ini juga diucapkan oleh kelompok Sindhis yang tersebar di banyak kota di India. Muslim Sindhi menggunakan bahasa ibu mereka untuk mengungkapkan rasa sayang dan harga diri yang tinggi untuk Nabi Muhammad SAW. Banyak tema dalam puisi Urdu juga ditemukan dalam puisi Sindhi. Ciri khas puisi Sindhi adalah kecenderungan untuk memuji Muhammad dan mewakili dia dalam simbol yang akrab dengan budaya dan sastra setempat. Hal ini dilakukan oleh penyair yang menggabungkan cerita rakyat dan romansa sebagai referensi alegoris atau mengikuti konvensi sastra lokal tertentu. Sebuah konvensi yang sangat mencolok membuat penyair laki-laki mengadopsi suara perempuan untuk berbicara kepada Nabi sebagai orang yang sangat menginginkan mempelai laki-laki atau kekasih. Sambil tampil aneh bagi khalayak Barat kontemporer, penggunaan semacam itu sama sekali sesuai dengan etos puisi devosional di banyak bagian India utara dan Pakistan di mana jiwa manusia selalu membayangkan berada dalam mode feminin dalam hubungan devosionalnya dengan Yang Ilahi. Pilihan puisi dari Afrika sub-Sahara disusun di Hausa dan Swahili, yang banyak digunakan di Afrika Barat dan Timur. Keduanya termasuk dalam keluarga bahasa Bantu. Karena hubungan budaya dan ekonomi kuno dengan dunia berbahasa Arab, (Hausa melalui perdagangan trans-Sahara yang menghubungkan Afrika Barat ke Afrika Utara Swahili melalui jaringan perdagangan melintasi Samudra Hindia antara pantai timur Afrika dan Arab), kedua bahasa tersebut Menyerap komponen penting kosakata bahasa Arab. Secara historis, bentuk modifikasi dari alfabet Arab bahkan pernah digunakan untuk menulis Hausa dan Swahili. Dengan datangnya kolonialisme Eropa, bagaimanapun, alfabet Latin diadopsi sebagai naskah resmi. Penyebaran Islam di kalangan orang-orang berbahasa Hausa dan Swahili telah mengakibatkan kedua bahasa menjadi kendaraan penting untuk ekspresi devosi Islam. Puisi di Hausa disusun oleh Asma (wafat 1865), putri pembaharu Islam abad ke 18 yang terkenal, Usuman dan Fodio (wafat 1817) (Kami akan belajar lebih banyak tentang Usuman dan Fodio dan ideologi reformisnya dalam Sesi Delapan. ) Terkenal karena kesalehan dan juga pembelajarannya, Asma menulis puisi dalam tiga bahasa, Arab, Hausa dan Fulfulde. Dia sangat berbakat dalam kemampuannya untuk mengekspresikan konsep Islam ke dalam idiom Afrika setempat, menulis sebanyak enam puluh karya selama masa hidupnya. Selain kemampuan religiusitas dan kesusastraannya, popularitas Asmas juga mengandalkan karya amal untuk orang-orang terpinggirkan di masyarakatnya dan juga kontribusinya untuk melanjutkan pendidikan bagi wanita. Puisinya, Ode dalam Praise of the Messenger, contoh dari jenis puisi yang disebut madih. Sutradara kenegatif, adalah salah satu komposisi paling terkenalnya dalam bahasa Hausa. Pemilihan Swahili adalah cerita puitis tentang kenaikan miraj atau Nabi Muhammad melalui langit. Kisah-kisah tradisional menceritakan bahwa suatu malam, Nabi Muhammad SAW, yang berada di atas makhluk mitos yang disebut Buraq dan dengan Malaikat Jibril sebagai pembimbingnya, pertama-tama pergi ke Yerusalem, di mana setelah memimpin nabi-nabi lain dalam doa, dia naik melalui berbagai langit, yang berpuncak Perjalanan ini dalam tatap muka bertemu dengan Tuhan. Orang-orang Muslim telah berbeda di antara mereka sendiri untuk menafsirkan peristiwa ini, dengan pemikiran yang lebih mistis menafsirkannya sebagai alegori spiritual untuk perjalanan jiwa manusia, semacam Kemajuan Pujangga. Muhammad miraj dibentuk untuk mistikus Islam sebagai prototipe pendakian setiap jiwa ke alam spiritual yang lebih tinggi. Miraj menjadi topik yang populer bagi penyair Muslim dalam banyak bahasa, terutama karena memungkinkan penyair membayangkan dan menggambarkan secara kreatif pengalaman yang sangat esoteris. Kebetulan, ada bukti kuat yang menunjukkan bahwa kisah puitis Muslim tentang miraj tersebut, yang sampai ke Eropa melalui pengadilan Arab di Spanyol abad pertengahan, mengilhami penulis Italia Dante untuk menulis karya terkenalnya, The Divine Comedy. Sebagaimana terbukti dalam pilihan lukisan, miraj telah memberikan inspirasi bukan hanya untuk penyair tapi juga untuk seniman. Ilustrasi yang tercakup di sini berasal dari manuskrip abad kelima belas yang disebut Miraj Nameh Treatise on the Miraj. Itu adalah salah satu karya besar yang diproduksi di studio-studio yang melekat pada istana kerajaan di Herat (saat ini di Afghanistan sekarang). Di studio kerajaan, kaligrafi, iluminator dan bookbinders ini menghasilkan manuskrip mewah untuk perpustakaan penguasa dan penguasa Shah Rukh (1396-1477), anak laki-laki Tamerlane. Dipercaya bahwa Mir Haydar, penulis teks tersebut, menerjemahkannya ke dalam dialek bahasa Turki dari bahasa Arab asli. Karya seni ini sangat berwarna dan menggambarkan berbagai pemandangan selama perjalanan surgawi Nabi Muhammad. Sementara para seniman dan pelindung yang terkait dengan tradisi manuskrip ini ternyata merasa nyaman dengan representasi figural Nabi, yang bahkan menggambarkan wajahnya, ada juga orang-orang Muslim yang menganggap penggambaran ini sebagai penyembahan berhala dan karenanya harus dilarang. Dengan demikian, mereka lebih memilih representasi aniconik Nabi mungkin melalui bentuk seni lainnya seperti puisi dan kaligrafi. Pertanyaan Panduan Saat Anda membaca dan mendiskusikan pilihannya, pertimbangkan pertanyaan berikut: Masing-masing puisi ini membangkitkan hubungan intim dengan Nabi Muhammad SAW. Dalam membacanya, pertimbangkan pentingnya cara pengabdian ini. Apa saja unsur-unsur yang menjadikan puisi semacam ini sebagai sarana yang efektif untuk mengkomunikasikan rasa sayang dan pengabdian religius Keintiman yang diungkapkan dalam puisi memungkinkan sebuah jendela masuk ke dalam penyair dan khalayak yang memahami Muhammad dan misinya kepada umat manusia. Bagaimana peran kenabian Muhammad disesuaikan dan berakulturasi dalam masing-masing tradisi ini. Dengan kata lain, bagaimana misi yang dibuat secara pribadi bermakna bagi penyair dan penonton Pertimbangkan pertanyaan yang sama seperti Anda membaca pilihan dari Mitologi dan Cerita Rakyat Hui. Sejauh mana mitos Hui mengungkapkan identitas Islam dan Cina Bagaimana identitas ini dinegosiasikan dalam cerita Apa pengaruh tradisi seni artistik lokal terhadap ilustrasi miraj tersebut. Apa yang bisa kita katakan tentang norma estetika yang telah mempengaruhi penggambaran tokoh (Nabi, malaikat), pakaian mereka, elemen alam (langit, awan dll) dan fitur arsitektural Bagaimana tradisi artistik ini menangani perspektif Bagaimana ilustrasi ini mencerminkan Khalayak yang dituju (kalangan istana dan aristokrat) Bagaimana konteks budaya dan norma estetika yang diterima mempengaruhi representasi Yesus dalam tradisi Kristen di seluruh dunia Mengapa beberapa Muslim merasa nyaman menggambarkan Nabi (terutama wajahnya) Mengapa orang lain menganggap ini menyinggung and hence forbidden What factors, aside from theological ones, could be involved in determining these attitudes What is the difference between poetic and figural depictions of the Prophet top Muhammad, Prophet of Islam, ranks amongst the most influential figures in human history. For millions of Muslims around the world, the Prophet Muhammad has become the paradigm, or role model, who is worthy of being emulated. As Gods hellip Comments Off on Seminar Two: Muhammad through History top Session Four readings consider the Quran as a written literary text, that is, in its physical form as a compiled book. Discussion of the Qurans style, structure and contents, its terminology and world-view and the diverse ways in which Muslim communities interpret it, help the reader understand the mechanics of this book that is of central significance to Muslims around the world. To provide a broader frame of reference for the study of the Quranic text as well as an understanding of the manner in which the Islamic tradition relates itself to Christianity and Judaism, the session includes an examination of the story of Joseph in a comparative context, that is, its narration in the Bible and the Quran. The readings on the Joseph story and its literary and artistic expressions in various cultural contexts invite an exploration of the role that cultural contexts play in creating diverse Muslim interpretations of the same text. The brief discussion of eight central themes of the Quran, in the readings from Kenneth Cragg, lays the foundation for understanding Islamic expectations concerning faith, worship and behavior. The eight themes, as stated by Cragg, are: God and His praise Man in creation Prophethood in human guidance prior to Muhammad Muhammad in his Meccan environment Muhammad in his Medinan locale Religious Law and devotion Social Law and society The Last Things Study of the Quran is not complete without an understanding of the importance that aesthetics of recitation plays in worship. As we have already discussed in Session Three, memorization and recitation of Quranic verse are important Muslim practices. The aural dimension of the Quran helps the believer access Gods message through sound. As we shall explore later, calligraphic Arabic writing adds an artistic dimension in revering Allahs word as well. Guiding Questions 1. Cragg states that Muslim conviction sees divine communication and Muhammad8217s messengership as the two aspects of a single fact.(page 18) How is the merging of these two concepts important to Islamic theology What roles did the conception and recording of the Quran play in explaining Craggs quote and in establishing this as a holy book 2. Cragg also discussed the concept of there-and-then in concern for here and now. (p. 27). Is there a correlation between the role and interpretations of the Quran and the life styles of Muslims during different historical time periods Explain. 3. Discuss the role of the Quran in providing direction for an ethical life. Incorporate the inclusion of the eight themes in the discussion. Joseph Story : The Joseph story is one of the best known and best-loved traditional narratives among Jewish, Christian and Muslim peoples. Jews and Christians know it in its Biblical form as it appears in Genesis 35-50. (Jews also know many embellishments to the story, which are found in Talmudic literature.) Muslims know it its Quranic form as told in Surah 12 (Chapter 12). The reading from J. Kaltner, Inquiring of Joseph, ix-xx 23-43 will be particularly helpful in framing your reading of the Quranic and Genesis accounts of the Joseph story. 4. In comparing the Biblical and Quranic traditions of the Joseph materials, try to assess what the distinctive features of each narrative are: the stylistic aspects of each account, its probable role in Jewish, Christian or Muslim religious lives, and its place in the larger historical understanding of each of these traditions. What are the differences in the plots of the two accounts How does character development differ in the two accounts What might bethe purpose andor effect of such differences What is the narrative standpoint from which each account is told Which accounts seem more didactic Where do the emphases upon particular events lie in each account Are the virtues and vices depicted in each account comparable How does Joseph himself appear in each account Finally, can you make some generalizations about the overall character of the Quranic narrative as opposed to the Biblical narrative 5. After comparing the Biblical and Quranic versions of the story of Joseph, read the Malay and Swahili narratives. How do these stories and their portrayals of Joseph compare and contrast with those of the Bible and the Quran Given that the Joseph story is already told in the Muslim scripture, what do you think is achieved by re-telling it in each tradition In the re-telling of the story, how is it indigenized or acculturated 6. John Renard writes that because of the long love affair that generations of Muslims across the world have had with Joseph, he has become a comprehensive reminder of the various aspects of the Islamic tradition. Provide some instances from the readings in support of this statement. 7. Cragg states that Creed, code, cult, community and culture are five cs in necessary inter-relation in every religion. (page 41). Use these five concepts to compare and contrast the variations of the Joseph story included in the readings. Include how the sources of the Joseph story reflect Christian, Jewish and Islamic ideologies. 8. After viewing and hearing the multi-media resources, reflect upon the importance of the aural and visual arts in Muslim devotional life. top Session Four readings consider the Quran as a written literary text, that is, in its physical form as a compiled book. Discussion of the Qurans style, structure and contents, its terminology and world-view and the diverse ways in hellip Comments Off on Seminar Four: The Qur8217an: Major Themes top We can trace much of the diversity in the Muslim world to religious, philosophical, and political tensions that arose in the centuries after the Prophet Muhammads death. Sunni and Shia communities, for example, were divided by disagreements on the succession of leadership after Muhammad, while the rise of a Sufi counterculture was in part a reaction to the un-Islamic lifestyles of political leaders. The early Muslim communities struggled over the authority and legitimacy of community leaders, the relationship between political and religious leadership, and the correct interpretation of the Quran and Muhammads life. One of the most decisive problems for early Muslims concerned authority and leadership. By the end of Muhammads life, most of the Arab tribes had formed a united community of believers ( ummah ), with Muhammad acting as their leader both in religious and political matters. But Muhammad was the Seal of the Prophets the authority of his successor, therefore, would not be based on prophethood. It was up to the early Muslims to determine the nature and function of leadership in their communities. When Muhammad died in 632, many members of the ummah felt that the Prophet had not designated a successor, and by general consensus Muhammads father-in-law Abu Bakr was elected the first successor (calpih). Others believed that Muhammad had appointed his cousin and son-in-law Ali ibn Ali Talib as his successor, and believed that Ali, as a member of Muhammads immediate family, was best qualified to guide the ummah. Alis supporters were known as the Shiat Ali . the Partisans of Ali, and agitated for Ali to become the caliph. In 680, the struggle between supporters of the early caliphs and the Shia culminated in the battle of Karbala where Alis son Husayn was murdered by the army of Yazid. The martyrdom of Husayn was considered a grave injustice by all Muslims, but was a profound tragedy for the Shia. The commemoration of Husayns martyrdom remains central to Shia religious identity. In addition to the problems of succession and leadership, Muslims also debated how the teachings of the Quran and other scripture should be applied in practice. The Quran provided guidance on many aspects of religious and social life, but some felt that it did not contain clear instruction on all possible religious and legal questions. To clarify the Qurans practical teachings, Muslims relied on sunnah . the customs and practices of the Prophet as recorded in Hadith . extra-quranic quotations and eyewitness reports of Muhammads behavior. Scholars traveled throughout the Muslim world collecting Hadith, while carefully scrutinizing their authenticity. Only those Hadith which were transmitted by an unbroken chain of reliable sources were deemed acceptable. All members of the ummah strove to adopt the message of the Quran and emulate Muhammad, who was celebrated as the uswa al-hasana (the most beautiful model). The Quran and sunnah . the most authoritative guides to religious and social life, were the primary sources for shariah . the path of right conduct and behavior as revealed by God. Scholars studied the Quran and hadith in order to clarify shariah . Several schools of jurisprudence were formed, each with its own method for arriving at legal rulings. Although all rulings were based on scripture, the ambiguity of the primary sources on certain issues required the use of systematic reasoning, based on methods sanctioned by each school. Some jurists, and later theologians and philosophers, developed sophisticated intellectual methods, some drawing from traditions of ancient Greek philosophy others became uncomfortable with the application of potentially fallible human reason to religious law and theology, and argued for a literal application of the Quran and sunnah . Four major schools of Sunni jurisprudence were to emerge from these debates. Each school attracted its own followers, and at times there were bitter rivalries between schools. Muslims sought the opinions and guidance of religious scholars, the ulama . marking them as authorities on religious matters. Political leaders also patronized the ulama . establishing endowments for centers of learning. In areas where political authority was less centralized, the ulama fulfilled a number of leadership roles, and took on a degree of political power as well. The Shia developed their own approaches to jurisprudence. While the rulings of Shia jurists did not deviate significantly from those of the Sunni schools, their approach to authority was quite unique. The Shia refused to accept the legitimacy of the early caliphs, remaining loyal to the descendants of Ali, whom they called Imams . spiritual leaders. As a descendant of Muhammads immediate family, each Imam was believed to inherit special insight and authority in the practice of scriptural interpretation. As such, the Imam was considered to be an essential intermediary between God and the Shia community. In addition to hadiths of the Prophet, the Shia collected similar traditions from the Imams . extending the sources of shariah beyond those accepted by the Sunni jurists. A dispute over the succession of the seventh Imam led to a further division among Shia, creating the Twelver and Ismaili communities. With the success and territorial expansion of political dynasties, government officials began to accumulate unprecedented wealth and power, and at times their lifestyles were considered at odds with shariah . Following the model of Muhammads simple lifestyle, some Muslims, called Sufis, renounced worldly gains and turned to lives of poverty and ascetic practice. Sufis explored mystical and symbolic interpretations of Islamic rituals and scriptures to uncover their deeper significance. Most Sufis had extensive training in Islamic law and its guidelines for ritual and social behavior, but strove to apply shariah to their inner lives as well. They formulated a personal, emotional vision of Islam, internalizing the meaning of the Quran and Muhammads life. The spiritual accomplishments of the Sufis attracted followers and students, and Sufi brotherhoods gradually spread beyond local political loyalties. A Sufi masters teachings and conduct could become the source of inspiration for followers. This spiritual allegiance would continue even after a masters death, with followers making pilgrimages to his tomb. It should be clear that while early Muslims were unified in their belief in the Quran and sunnah . they came to interpret the meaning of Islam in diverse ways. All Muslims agreed on the authority of the Quran, but they actively debated the authority of political and religious leaders, the limits of human reason, and the compatibility of spiritual and worldly aspirations. Guiding Questions At the heart of many of the sectarian movements among Muhammads followers was the problem of establishing legitimate leadership. How did the early Muslims make sense of the shift in the leadership from Muhammad as the Seal of the Prophets to his successors who could not claim the authority of prophethood What were the Sunni and Shia solutions to this problem How did the qualifications for legitimate rule differ according to these communities with respect to education, family and tribal identity, spirituality, wealth, and politics The readings for this session describe different approaches to scriptural, religious, and political authority. What were the important sources of authority for each sectarian movement In the case where more than one source of authority was accepted, how were these sources reconciled Think about the role of hierarchical structures of authority. Do you see similarities between authority in Shia and Sufi traditions, especially in their concepts of religious leadership Ernst distinguishes between philosophical ethics based on reason and religious ethics based on revelation (p. 110). How does this distinction relate to the early schools of Islamic law and theology, especially the Mutazilites, Asharites, and People of Hadith What was the role of reason and revelation in establishing Shariah and practicing philosophy Why did some jurists argue the necessity of reason to interpret the Quran and Sunnah Ernst argues that the concept of what is called Western civilization should. include Islam on the grounds of Muslim philosophers active engagement with ancient Greek thinkers. After centuries of neglect, European philosophers rediscovered Greek philosophy and translated the works of Plato and Aristotle, as well as the original works of Muslim philosophers, from Arabic into Latin. Greek philosophy, widely considered the foundation for Western philosophy, was preserved and developed by Muslims. Still, Muslim philosophers are rarely acknowledged for this work. Ernst calls this one of the great areas of selective amnesia about the nature of Western civilization. How is this selective amnesia an argument for European superiority What are the implications of including Islam in the concept of Western civilization top We can trace much of the diversity in the Muslim world to religious, philosophical, and political tensions that arose in the centuries after the Prophet Muhammads death. Sunni and Shia communities, for example, were divided by disagreements on hellip Comments Off on Seminar Five: Communities of Interpretation top The centuries leading up to the Mongol invasions of the 13th century saw a culmination of Muslim spiritual and intellectual traditions, with masterpieces of literature, metaphysics, and theology. Sufi mystics, seeking a personal, subjective experience of God, gradually came to form networks of fraternal orders spanning the Muslim world. The language of their teachings was rich in symbolism and metaphor, inspiring poets like Jalal ud-Din Rumi (d. 1273) to compose literature of supreme beauty and vitality. Thinkers such as Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali (d. 1111) drew upon developments in Muslim intellectual traditions, as well as Greek philosophy and Neoplatonism, in their influential writings on mysticism and theology. They organized these ideas into comprehensive systems of faith, integrating objective and subjective forms of knowledge and religious experience. Even during the Prophet Muhammads lifetime some Muslims were moved to express their deep devotion to God with special spiritual disciplines. Citing such hadiths as poverty is my pride, they turned away from worldly accomplishments to adopt a simple lifestyle of voluntary poverty. These renunciates strove to realize the spiritual significance the message of the Quran, and the virtues of the lifestyle outlined by the hadith and sunnah. These spiritual practices were firmly grounded in the Quran, with its allusions to the Night of Power when the Quran was revealed to Muhammad, as well as the miraj, the Prophets miraculous journey from Mecca to Jerusalem and ascension through the seven heavens into the presence of God. Muslims borrowed the language and symbolism of such events in order to express their own spiritual growth and experience of God, seeking the deeper, mystical meaning of the Quran and sunnah. Muslim mystics were called Sufis, perhaps due to the coarse woolen ropes they wore (suf is Arabic for wool), in contrast to the lavish attire of political leaders and officials. Sufis considered the extravagant lifestyles of these officials to be at odds with the teachings of the Quran and shariah, and sought to turn away from worldly accomplishments, like wealth and political power, which were considered distractions from their devotions. Details from the lives of early Sufis are recorded in stories which exemplify a deep-seated devotion to the basic teachings of Islam. For example, Sufis strove to replace their own selfish desires with the love of God. This teaching was exemplified by Rabia al-Adawiyya (d. 801) who, with a torch in one hand and a bucket of water in the other, exclaimed, I want to dowse the fires of hell and set fire to heaven so that people will love Godnot out of their fear of hell or the hope of heavenbut for his own sake. Likewise, the importance of tawhid, the affirmation of Gods unity, was famously dramatized by Husayn Mansur al-Hallaj (d. 922). In a state of mystical ecstasy, Hallaj extended the implications of tawhid by claiming to be a manifestation of the divine truth. Although Hallaj was executed as a heretic, in Sufi literature his martyrdom became a popular symbol for unwavering sacrifice and mystical union with God. From the 11th century, Sufism began to take on a formal organizational structure. Sufis began to write systematic treatises and organize themselves into loose affiliations, on par with the various schools of Islamic jurisprudence. Often Sufi orders were structured around a spiritual master, one who had progressed through a number mystical stages, and, in the process, achieved the qualities of sainthood. These Sufi masters, called sheikhs (spiritual guides), attracted students who congregated at meeting houses to receive instruction. Even after the death of a sheikh, students and devotees visited the tomb of the master to receive his blessing (baraka). These tombs became popular centers of pilgrimage throughout the Muslim world, and the sheikh was thought to function as an intercessor between God and the pilgrims. The concept of intercession in Sufism is not unlike the special status of the Prophets family and Imams in Shiism. Alongside the formation of Sufi orders, schools of theology and philosophy studied the scriptures and sunnah some even began to consider their faith in light of neighboring intellectual traditions. The writings of Plato, Aristotle and the Neoplatonists were especially influential among Muslim intellectuals who questioned how these systems of logic, cosmology, and metaphysics could enhance Muslims understanding of the Qurans teachings. Mutazilite theologians represented the rationalist position, arguing that the universe was arranged by certain principles that can be discovered by reason alone. Others felt that there were limits to the power of reason, and felt that God and his creation could be known primarily through divine revelation as conveyed in the Quran. A third group of theologians, the Asharites, adopted a compromise, accepting the use of reason as a tool in theological debates, but conceding that God ultimately transcends reason. Asharite theologians were thoroughly educated in logic and philosophy, and their positions reflect a synthesis of the major intellectual traditions current in the Middle East and surrounding areas. Early Muslim philosophers wove ideas from Greek and neo-Platonist philosophy into their metaphysical teachings regarding the relationship between God and the universe. Ibn Sina (d. 1037), also known as Avicenna, wrote important commentaries on Greek philosophy which were to play a central role in the so-called rediscovery of philosophy by Christian scholastics like Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274). But Muslim philosophers like Ibn Sina did not merely preserve earlier traditions they incorporated these ideas into Islamic intellectual traditions and made original contributions to philosophy and theology. The various intellectual traditions outlined above, namely, Sufism, theology, and philosophy, were brought together by Asharite theologian Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali (d. 1111), whose synthesis would be widely accepted as an integration of Sufi mysticism, shariah based religion, and philosophical methods. Al-Ghazzalis biography is itself an embodiment of this synthesis. An accomplished professor in Islamic jurisprudence, al-Ghazzali gave up a prestigious professorship to devote himself to the search for a deeper faith. This search led to an elegant formulation of Islam, which reconciled the teachings of the Quran and the ritualism of shariah, with the personal experience of God found in Sufism. Al-Ghazzali argued for an integration of the objective knowledge of the scholars and the subjective knowledge of the Sufis. This fusion of reason and emotion, of outer and inner religious life, was the culmination of centuries of debates between mystics, theologians, and philosophers to many, it would prove a satisfying solution to these debates, and a successful integration of shariah and mysticism. Guiding Questions At one time Western scholars of Islam felt that Sufism was incompatible with Islam and tried to establish, unconvincingly, that it was the product of Hindu or Christian influence. To this day the artistic expressions of Sufis, such as Jalal ud-Din Rumi, are among the most popular expressions of Islam in the West. Is there a connection between these two phenomena What about Sufism allows it to transcend the generally negative image of Islam in the West Are there similarities between Sufi and Western ideals, and if so, do they withstand scrutiny What does it mean to say that Sufism is the internalization of Islam and Sharia Occasionally one hears that Islam forbids music and representational art this misconception fails to recognize countless examples of such art forms created by Muslim artists. In Ernsts discussion of Islamic art, he makes a distinction between Islamic art which is directly connected to religion, and Islamicate art which is non-religious and may be created by both Muslims and non-Muslims. Try to apply this distinction to examples of visual art, architecture, literature, and music. What can you say about the differences between Islamic and Islamicate art, and, for that matter, the general usefulness of this distinction Think about artistic traditions in your own community, and the role of religions in these traditions. To what degree is the IslamicIslamicate distinction analogous to the distinction between sacred and secular art Both Sells and Ernst describe the relationship between the lives of the early Sufis and the teachings of the Quran and the life of Muhammad. Events from Muhammads life became spiritual models for Sufis for example, the Night of Power, when the Quran was revealed to Muhammad, and the miraj, Muhammads ascension into the presence of God. How do these events lend themselves to mystical interpretations How could Sufis model their own spiritual experiences upon these events without claiming the status of prophethood What is the role of the Quran and sunnah in Sufism How do the basic values of Sufism such as tawhid (affirmation of Gods unity), tawakkul (trust in God), and rida (contentment with Gods will) relate to the message of the Quran Why did some Muslims reject Sufi practices and teachings How do you account for tensions between Sufis and political leaders, as well as between Sufis and religious leaders Lapidus states that by the 13th century a Sunni-scripturalist-Sufi orientation had emerged as the normative form of Sunni Islam. Consider the variety of Muslim intellectual and religious traditions in currency prior to the 13th century. Which traditions played the largest roles in the formation of this normative consensus Which approaches to jurisprudence, philosophy, theology, and mysticism did this consensus exclude and why Compare and contrast the roles of intercession and pilgrimage in Shiism and Sufism. What was the intellectual and political context of al-Ghazzalis synthesis of various strands of philosophy, theology, and mysticism Why was this synthesis so successful top The centuries leading up to the Mongol invasions of the 13th century saw a culmination of Muslim spiritual and intellectual traditions, with masterpieces of literature, metaphysics, and theology. Sufi mystics, seeking a personal, subjective experience of God, gradually hellip Comments Off on Seminar Six: Communities of Interpretation top The onset of European imperialism created a crisis of monumental proportions in the Muslim world. For Muslim intellectuals and religious scholars, it became abundantly clear that the nations of Europe had been able to conquer and subdue Muslim societies due to superior weaponry and machinery. The crisis, however, was not simply political or technological. It was also economic, social and cultural, as the structures and institutions introduced by the colonial powers brought with them a range of challenges to traditional Muslim world-views and perspectives on a wide range of issues. For instance, with European colonialism came the idea of secularism and the notion that sovereignty, the ability to make laws, and to determine right from wrong, rested neither with God nor with religious institutions claiming to interpret Gods will, but with the consensus of the people as expressed in the institutions of the state. Colonialism also brought it with Christian missionaries who were anxious to take advantage of the opportunities to spread their religion under the benevolent protection of the colonial state. These missionaries, along with early western scholars who studied Islam under colonial patronage, promoted the view that Islamic doctrines, practices and concepts, such as jihad, polygamy, the veil, and the sharia, were evidence that Islam was a backward religion, incompatible with progress and development. Hence, it was their duty to embark on a mission that was to simultaneously Christianize and to civilize colonial subjects and show them the way to progress. In the civilizing mission of European imperialism, Muslim communities were confronted with a force that was powerful enough to transform them into its own image, using brute military might, if necessary. For many Muslims, the political, cultural and religious denigration they experienced under colonial rule resulted in a crisis of faith as religious ideals chafed against historical realities. Viewed particularly from the perspective of Sunni Islam, to which the majority of worlds Muslims adhere, the history of their faith, until the eighteenth century, had been on the whole, with a few exceptions (such as the Crusades and Mongol invasions), a history of political triumph characterized by the steady expansion of Islam as a global religion. This political triumph, lasting many centuries, had been interpreted in theological terms: it was a sign that God was on the side of the Muslims, rewarding them with triumph in the world for faithfully following His commands. The new dominance and the visible strength of the West in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries created an uneasy feeling among many Muslims that something had gone wrong in history, triggering anxious questions. Was not the loss of hegemony in world affairs a sign that God had abandoned them because they were no longer practicing their faith correctly How were Muslims to respond to challenges to Muslim identity and faith in this new context What were the reasons for the political and economic decline Secularists blamed outmoded interpretations of Islam, its institutions and role that they played in public life for the ills facing Muslim societies. They felt that secularism, that is, separation of religion and politics and establishment of nation-states based on models derived from the West, would open the path towards modernization. By imitating the nations of Europe, they were convinced that Muslim societies would once again regain their lost dignity and their rightful place on the world stage. In contrast, conservative religious leaders (the ulama) argued that imitating the West was not a cure on the contrary the West was a deadly poison for Muslim societies. For them, Muslims were in a situation of powerlessness because they had deviated from the correct practice of religion as interpreted by the great Sunni scholars of the ninth and tenth centuries, the founders of the four main schools of Sunni religious jurisprudence. If Muslims were to follow carefully the teachings of the learned teachers of the past, they would surely return to the sirat al-mustaqim, the right path and then, perhaps, God would be on their side once again. Islamic modernism emerged as a compromise between secularly based advocacy of Western ideals and religiously motivated rejection of these ideals. It was an attempt by Muslim intellectuals, many of whom were not part of the traditional religious elite, to reconcile fundamentals of the Islamic faith with modern concepts such as nationalism, constitutionalism, rationality, scientific inquiry, modern western style education, womens rights and so on. Its leaders struggled to redefine Islam in terms of dominant Western values and to demonstrate its ability to adapt to the new world that Muslims encountered as their societies modernized. Integral to Islamic modernism was a process of internal self-criticism in which Muslim intellectuals struggled to come to terms with causes of decline while at the same time developing interpretations of Islam that accommodated modernity. For Islamic modernists, the ulama, through their old-fashioned and outdated modes of interpreting Islam and its religious texts, constituted a major part of obstacle in the path of reinvigorating Islam in the new context. For instance, a leading modernist, Jamal ad-Din Al-Afghani (1838-1897), felt that the ulama, by stifling independent and rational thought, had been responsible for the decline of Islamic civilization. Claiming that they were the true enemies of Islam, he likened them to a very narrow wick on top which is a very small flame that neither lights its surroundings nor gives light to others. (as quoted in Reza Aslan, There is no god but God, p. 230) The modernists challenged the status of the ulama as sole authoritative interpreters of the faith by declaring that the doors to ijtihad, individual interpretation, had never been closed. According to the modernists, the notion of taqlid, following or adhering to the interpretations of the learned, had been clearly promoted by the ulama to bolster their authority and suppress alternative viewpoints and interpretations. Viewed from this perspective, Islamic modernism was nothing short of an outright rebellion against the Islamic orthodoxy, and displayed an astonishing compatibility with the nineteenth century Enlightenment. (M. Moaddel and K. Talattof, Modernist and Fundamentalist Debates in Islam, p.1) Not surprisingly the ulama did not take too kindly to Modernist attacks on their authority and used their traditional control over the masses to fight against the Modernist vision by declaring its proponents to be kafirs, or infidels. and apostates. The readings for this Session cover the period between the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, when a group of prominent Muslim thinkers promoted the Modernist vision in the Middle East and the Indian Subcontinent. They critically examined traditional conceptions of various aspects of Islamic thought, including legal systems, and called for new ways of interpreting the Quran and the other sources of Islamic jurisprudence. The most prominent of the modernists was Jamal al-Din al-Afghani (1838-97) around whom developed a circle of influential disciples. Al-Afghani promoted the view that Islam, correctly interpreted, was a socio-political ideology and civilization whose values were superior to Western civilization and could be used to unite politically Muslims of different nationalities and ethnicities against European colonialism. In this regard, he is often perceived as the father of pan-Islamism. He was also a strong advocate for the adoption of modern science which he considered central to the survival of Muslim civilization against European cultural onslaught. Muhammad Abduh (1849-1905), an Egyptian scholar, was one of the most prominent disciples of al-Afghani. Together they founded a short-lived journal called Al-Urwah al-wuthqa which vehemently opposed European imperialism and demanded Islamic reform and unity. Based on his familiarity and training in traditional Islamic education, Abduh called for a fresh interpretation of the Quran and the sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad so that it was more appropriate to a modern context. Indeed, for him, interpretation of divinely revealed texts was a dynamic process in which reason and revelation were to be harmonious. In his eyes, anyone who denied scientific truths or the importance of rationality was committing a grievous sin. On account of his teaching position at Al-Azhar, a premier institution of learning in the Sunni world, he was able to influence students who came from as far as Indonesia and Malaysia. Abduh espoused his ideas in al-Manar The Beacon a journal widely read in parts of the Muslim world. Abduh edited this journal with his disciple and biographer Muhammad Rashid al-Rida (1865-1935). While Rida, like al-Afghani and Abduh, called for a reinterpretation of the Quran as well as the compatibility of Islam with science, reason and modernity, over time he became religiously more conservative and critical of the increasing secularization of society. He advocated that Muslims follow the example of the early Muslim community, the salaf, laying the foundation for the more strident Islamist movement, the Muslim Brotherhood that was to evolve later. Qasim Amin (1863-1908) was another important figure in the circle of disciples associated with al-Afghani and Abduh. He was a prominent among the Modernists for his advocacy of equal rights for women, an end to their seclusion and, through access to education, equal participation in public life. In the Indian subcontinent, the Modernist movement arose in the aftermath of the Indian rebellion of 1857-8 when Hindu and Muslim sepoys (soldiers) began a movement to overthrow the power of the British. The British suppressed the rebellion with brutal force, with many Indians losing their lives andor their property. In this traumatic context arose a Modernist leader, Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan (1817-1898), who was firmly convinced that to make progress in the context of colonial India, the best path for the Muslims to follow was that of absolute and unwavering loyalty to the British. Furthermore, he felt that Muslims should participate fully in the Western-style educational system being established by the British so that they would not become a social and economic underclass. Western thought, he believed, was not in fundamental conflict with Islam, nor was the studying the natural sciences, for there could not be a conflict between the Quran 8211 the Word of God 8211 and Nature 8211 the Work of God. In this regard, he advocated a rational and contextual approach to Quran interpretation since Islam, according to him, accommodates historical change. To promote his ideas and provide young Muslims with Western-style higher education, he fought for and eventually founded the Anglo-Muhammadan Oriental College, which later became Aligarh Muslim University. Sayyid Ahmad Khans approach enjoyed the support of several important personalities in Indo-Muslim society and formed the basis of the so-called Aligarh Movement. Among its members were several important literati who wrote Urdu prose and poetry to disseminate their ideas. Most prominent were Altaf Husayn Hali (d. 1914) who wrote the famous poem Madd va gazr-i Islam, The Ebb and Flow of Islam, in which he contrasts the past glories and achievements of Islamic civilization with the miserable status of Muslims of his time Nazir Ahmad (d. 1912) a novelist whose writings, such as Mirat al - Arus The Brides Mirror, emphasized the need for female education and Mumtaz Ali whose major work, Huquq al-niswan, The Rights of Women, advocates complete equality between men and women. Perhaps the most radical of Sir Sayyids collaborators was Chiragh Ali (d. 1895) who not only dismissed traditional Islamic jurisprudence, but more controversially considered the genre of hadith, accounts of the Prophets deeds and statements, to be entirely fabricated. A significant intellectual and financial supporter of Aligarh Muslim University was Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah Aga Khan III (1877-1957), Imam, or spiritual leader, of the Ismaili branch of the Shia Muslims. Sultan Muhammad Shah utilized his religious authority to institute a social, economic, and educational revolution among his followers that had far reaching consequences, including dramatically improving the status of Ismaili women. For instance, he declared the seclusion of women to be crime, and abolished the practice of veiling among his followers. During his lifetime, Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah held several leadership positions within Indias Muslim community organizations representing their interests before the British. In an international context he represented India at the League of Nations, the predecessor to the present-day United Nations, being elected to its presidency in 1937. As you read about Islamic Modernism, it is worth keeping in mind that it is a complex movement, far from being monolithic for it is comprised of several strands some which were in deep disagreement and contradiction with each other. Such tensions inherent in the movement would explain why Jamal al-Din al-Afghani was quite critical of the ideas and outlook of a fellow Modernist, Sayyid Ahmad Khan whom he considered to be a puppet of the British colonialists. Guiding Questions List at least five specific challenges that modernity posed to Muslim societies. What is Islamic Modernism As you read the selections, what are the various definitions of Islamic Modernism What is the difference in Islamic Modernism and the reformistrevivalist movements we explored in Session Eight Identify some of the challenges faced by Islamic Modernists as they sought to articulate their vision. Aside from calling for a reinterpretation of Islam, what were other areas of reform that were part of the modernist agenda As you read the writings of the men who were part of this movement, think about common themes. What kinds of subjects do they bring up repeatedly How do those themes give us insight into the criticism that Islamic Modernists may have faced top The onset of European imperialism created a crisis of monumental proportions in the Muslim world. For Muslim intellectuals and religious scholars, it became abundantly clear that the nations of Europe had been able to conquer and subdue Muslim hellip Comments Off on Seminar Nine: Islamic Modernism The second half of the twentieth century witnessed the end of European imperial rule over many parts of the world. In the aftermath of World War II, the network of institutions that had enabled European control over Asian and African societies became increasingly weak and unstable. As a result, movements for political independence blossomed in the colonies, many of which eventually declared themselves to be sovereign, independent nations. Notwithstanding the ending of formal European political rule, these new nations continue, however, to be impacted by the legacy of colonialism. This impact can be discerned in the political, economic and legal institutions they inherited, including even the conception of the nation state which historically originated in Europe. Indeed, as Vali Nasr writes, in the general reading assigned for this session, the legacy of colonialism is key in explaining both the diversity and unity of different experiments with state formation in the Muslim World. (p. 551) Muslim societies in the post colonial period have witnessed a search for satisfying and legitimate interpretations of Islam in relation to a range of issues including globalization, industrialization, uneven economic development, rapid social change, religious and ethnic pluralism. In this search all sorts of interpretations have been put forward, ranging from progressive to reactionary ones. At a political level, the failure of ideologies such as capitalism, communism, and socialism to deliver social and economic justice have prompted crucial questions concerning the role of Islam in the nation-state. As a result, Islam has sometimes come to be interpreted not simply as a system of religious beliefs, practices, morals and ethics, but as a political ideology underpinning the nation state an ideology that will solve all the problems facing contemporary Muslim societies. As Reza Aslan aptly points out in his book, No god but God. Islam has been invoked to legitimize and to overturn governments, to promote republicanism and defend authoritarianism, to justify monarchies, autocracies, oligarchies and theocracies. He points out that the proponents of each form of government have considered theirs to be the only authentically Islamic formulation, usually legitimizing their formulation by invoking their particular understanding of the state established by the Prophet Muhammad in Medina. As a consequence, he points out,.the Islamic state is by no means a monolithic concept. Indeed, there are many countries in the world that could be termed as Islamic states, none of which have much in common with each other. And yet not only do all these countries view themselves as the realization of the Medinan ideal they view each other as contemptible desecrations of that ideal. (p.257) The emergence of political Islam is a recent phenomenon in the intellectual history of Muslim societies and, as such, is clearly rooted in their colonial and post-colonial experience. Islamists, that is, those Muslims who seek to interpret Islam as a political ideology, espouse an exclusivist world-view that denies room for pluralism or diversity of interpretations. They are revisionist or ahistorical in their reading of history (they imagine an ideal past in which Muslims practiced a pure Islam) as well as the exegesis of religious texts such as the Quran and hadith. Frequently, they identify themselves through declarative external symbols such as dress and physical appearance. They tend to function well in contexts marked by political, economic and social inequities as well as general religious illiteracy where most people rely on the interpretations of those who have laid claim to some form of religio-political authority. The readings in Session Ten explore, through the case study method, some of the diverse political, economic and social contexts in which Muslims live today and the different roles that Islam plays in particular nation states. The second half of the twentieth century witnessed the end of European imperial rule over many parts of the world. In the aftermath of World War II, the network of institutions that had enabled European control over Asian and African hellip Copyright copy 2009 - Muslim Histories amp Cultures. All materials presented on this site are the property of their respective authors. Please do not reproduce them online or in print without first obtaining written permission. Please contact the author to obtain his or her written consent.
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